• Include beehive fences, buffers of chillie cultivation, vegetative barriers, and acoustic deterrents 

This is Part I of a multiple-part series. The next part will be published in an upcoming issue of The Daily Morning

Traditional low-cost strategic methods used by farming communities the world over to deter elephants from raiding and damaging croplands include beehive fences, buffers of chillie cultivation, vegetative barriers, and acoustic deterrents.

These methods were noted in an article on the ‘Indigenous knowledge to deter elephants damaging croplands’ which was authored by C.S. De Silva and H.K.L.K. Gunasekara (both attached to the Open University's Engineering Technology Faculty's Agricultural and Plantation Engineering Department), and published in the Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage's Third Volume’s Second Issue, in July of last year (2024).

There are many approaches, some experimental and some tested, from elephant ranging land across Africa and Asia. The fact that elephants can get used to any single deterrent has implications upon the selection and implementation of methods. 

It is recommended that a combination of techniques be employed in order to minimise the risk of elephants becoming used to any single method. New methods are not meant to replace ones already in use in communities. Some methods will be based upon traditional methods already used for centuries. The techniques are based upon influencing the elephant’s behaviour or ecology. 

Traditional or indigenous techniques imply techniques which have been used throughout history by local communities, and regarding which knowledge is passed on from generation to generation (H.K.L.K. Gunasekara and C.S. De Silva's ‘Indigenous knowledge in farming systems in Sri Lanka’). They are most often based upon scaring elephants away from fields. They generally utilise low-tech materials that are widely available. Most traditional methods are of limited use as a deterrent, usually only temporarily easing the problem, or shifting it to a neighbouring area. 

HEC in farming

The human-elephant farming conflict is prevalent throughout Africa and Asia. When elephants eat farmers’ crops while foraging to meet their large caloric needs, farmers are unable to maintain their livelihood. Elephants are large herbivores, and, on average, elephants consume 250-300 pounds of foliage per day (the International Elephant Foundation’s ‘Elephant facts’). They are mixed feeders that both browse and graze. Elephants rely on fruit as well as grass and shrubs for their diet and nutrition (an African study). Elephant crop raiding is an especially serious issue for farmers living adjacent to protected areas. 

These farmers consider elephants to be one of the most serious causes of crop damage (an African study and an Ethiopian study). A Ghanaian study found that although signs of elephants were minimal, the majority reported that elephants damaged their crops (84%) and soil (71%), with elephants drinking their water. Further, elephant crop-raiding is problematic for farmers due to its severity rather than its frequency (a Tanzanian study). 

The severity of elephant crop damage creates epicentres of the human-elephant farming conflict that is detrimental to subsistence farmers, because such farmers' production matches their consumption with little or no surplus (an African study). Poorly guarded farms are most susceptible to elephant crop raiding (an African study). In just one night, a family of elephants can destroy a farmer’s entire field (a Kenyan study). Elephant crop raiding behaviour is most severe during peak ripening, just before crops are ready for harvest (P.I. Chiyo, E.P. Cochrane, L. Naughton and G.I. Basuta’s ‘Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants: A response to changes in forage quality or crop availability?’ and two Kenyan studies). This imposes a serious threat to subsistence farmers’ economic stability, earning potential and livelihood (S. Hedges and D. Gunaryadi’s ‘Reducing human-elephant conflict [HEC]: Do chillies help deter elephants from entering crop fields?’ and C. Mackenzie and P. Ahabyona’s ‘Elephants in the garden: Financial and social costs of crop raiding’). 

These financial losses to the farming communities may render families unable to pay necessary expenses, meet their families’ basic needs and childhood education. In Africa, children under the age of 18 are often needed to protect these fields and it in turn impacts children’s access to education. In Tanzania, 60% of students reported not attending schools to guard crops which degrades children’s academic performance where they scored worse on national exams than students living in communities not impacted by wildlife. Small-scale farmers are often unable to address the underlying causes of the human elephant farming conflict. They focus their energy on minimising crop damage by deterring elephants. 

Beehive fences?

Elephants are afraid of bees, especially the aggressive African honeybees. These bees’ sting can be extremely painful, even for the thick-skinned elephants, especially inside their trunk or around their eyes (L.E. King, F. Lala, H. Nzumu, E. Mwambingu and I. Douglas-Hamilton’s ‘Beehive fences as a multi-dimensional conflict-mitigation tool for farmers coexisting with elephants’). Elephants stay away from acacia trees with beehives. Not only do the elephants run away from the sound of buzzing bees, they also emit low frequency alarm calls to alert family members about the possible threat. The fence consists of beehives hung every 10 metres, linked by wires. When an elephant touches the fence, the beehives swing, unleashing a swarm of angry bees (a Kenyan study). They are particularly good at stopping raids by overwhelmingly large groups of elephants. Honey and other bee products earn the farmers an additional income (L.E. King, E. Lucy, A. Lawrence, I. Douglas-Hamilton and F. Vollrath’s ‘Beehive fence deters crop-raiding elephants’).

Buffers of chilli cultivation

Capsaicin, the chemical in chilli that makes them hot, is an irritant, causing elephants to cough, sneeze and eventually turn away. Some farmers protect their crops from elephants by planting buffers of chilli (Capsicum frutescens) plants around them. The chillie also earns them extra money. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust in South Africa teaches farmers to make rope fences smeared with waste engine oil and red chilli, and mounted with cowbells, to deter elephants (a Tanzanian study). Capsicum powder has been tested on refuse dumps and applied to fence posts to stop elephant damage. Elephants have been repelled from fields by burning a mixture of capsicum powder and elephant dung. Additionally, a mixture of grease and capsicum, applied to string fences, reduced the regularity of incursions by elephants into fields.

Barrier of unpalatable crops

One can reduce the attractiveness of cultivated areas by planting unpalatable crops in vulnerable areas, e.g. on farms at the edges of protected areas. Crops may include sisal, chilli, tea, ginger or oilseed. 

Mustard can be cultivated near the forest to avoid damage from wild elephants. When elephants crush the mustard plants, they feel the strong smell which the elephants don't like, and they turn back and go away. Having buffer zones of mustard cultivation where elephants enter the cultivated land will help to stop them entering the cultivated land. Farmers can gain an income from mustard cultivation (an Indian study and P. Mehta, J.J. Kulkarni and U. Hiremath’s ‘How to protect your crops from elephants. A handy guide for farmers and the Forest Department’).

Thorny plants of agave and cactus can be planted on the boundary of the farm. These plants grow tall and are thorny, so the elephants find it difficult to enter through them.

Elephants are not attracted to lemon. Therefore, lemon trees can be planted on the boundary of the farm. When the trees have become big, thick, and thorny, elephants avoid the area. Lemon fruits, or pickles that are made can be sold to generate an additional income.

Due to the dislike of elephants for sunflowers, farmers in the sample of this study reported that sunflowers provide numerous benefits. A beehive fence farmer remarked, “Elephants don’t like sunflowers, but, it’s attractive to bees. Bees use sunflowers as a food source.” According to a farmer, sunflowers also help in pollen grains. Sometimes, the bees use it for preparing honey. When farmers plant sunflowers near beehives, the hives become more attractive to bees, which may increase beehive occupation rates and honey production. While sunflower cultivation can be beneficial to humans and other species, growing them can be difficult for farmers (a Kenyan study).

A total of 50% of farmers interviewed reported that Moringa oliifera is not attractive to elephants. “Once they have flowers, they release a scent which is not attractive to elephants.” Most farmers agreed that moringa cultivation offers numerous benefits. In addition, moringa’s biological properties make it well suited for cultivation. It is not affected by the weather because it is a tuber. It stores water. It waits and grows up when rain comes again. Therefore, it can withstand unreliable rainfall and extended drought when crops like maize are unlikely to survive. 

Seven medicinal and aromatic plants containing higher amounts of specific plant and secondary compounds were explored to reduce the damage by elephants on rice and maize. Chamomile, coriander, mint, basil, turmeric, lemongrass and citronella were less attractive and were not consumed by elephants compared to rice (an Asian study).